Tag Archives: gastrointestinal issues

December 2014 – in time for Christmas

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December 2014 : ‘flu vaccination for children, calprotectin, paintballing bruises, eczema and some useful links to atopy downloads.   Do leave comments:

July 2014 published

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Last bit of headaches this month with guidance on management of various primary headaches, including medication overuse headache.  Also more on domperidone, psoriasis, respiratory and heart rates to worry about and a link to a new colic summary I’ve put under the Primary Care Guidelines tab.  Do leave comments below.

Sick and tired – the truth about infantile reflux

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Sick and tired – the truth about infantile reflux

By Dr Tom Waterfield

We have all had that difficult conversation regarding “reflux” when a tired parent has come to us with their “sicky child” and an unshakeable belief that their baby has gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. There is often enormous pressure to provide a solution but how do we decide which children need treatment and what treatments should we use? In view of the recent concerns regarding the use of Domperidone I have chosen to review the current evidence base for the management of this common problem.

 

The North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition(NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) produced a useful guideline document in 20091. This concise 50 page document discusses the evidence base for all aspects of gastro-oesophageal reflux and some of the key points are outlined below.

 

Diagnosis

1)      Physiological Gastro-oesophageal reflux (GER) is common; around 50% of healthy infants will display symptoms of GER. These “happy spitters” will be gaining weight and healthy1.

2)      Faltering growth is unlikely to be due to GERD and alternate diagnosis such as cow’s milk protein allergy should be considered1.

Investigation

1)      The Gold-Standard investigation to make a positive diagnosis of GERD is an impedance study. This has largely replaced the pH study. In this study the changes in the electrical impedance (ie, resistance) between multiple electrodes located along an oesophageal catheter are used to measure reflux. Unlike a pH study the impedance study will also be able to detect non-acidic reflux1.

 

2)      In the majority of cases there will be no role for any other diagnostic test for GERD1

Management

1)      Reassurance

Try to avoid treating simple GER. Reassurance is often all that is required. Before starting any treatment have a frank discussion regarding the risks and benefits1.

 

2)      Positioning “Tummy Time”

There is evidence that lying prone improves GERD when compared with lying supine or semi-erect. It is however, not recommended that children sleep prone due to the associated risk of sudden infantile death (SIDS). A sensible compromise might involve allowing the child to lie prone when awake and supervised by the parent. Semi-supine positions (such as sitting in a car seat) are not recommended and may exacerbate reflux symptoms1.

 

3)      Thickened Feeds

Commercially available thickened feeds (anti-reflux feeds) are safe and relatively effective at reducing visible regurgitation1.

 

4)      Buffering agents and Alginates

There is very little evidence to support the use of alginates (e.g. Gaviscon Infant) in the treatment of GERD although their use is likely to be safe1.

 

5)      H2RAs and PPIs (Unlicensed treatments)

Antacid treatment with Histamine 2 Receptor Antagonsists (HR2As) is effective at healing proven oesophagitis in adults but there is very little data to support their use in infancy. H2RAs such as Ranitidine are relatively safe but their effectiveness is unproven and there are high rates of tachyphylaxis thereby limiting their usefulness in the long term1.

 

Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs) such as Lansoprazole and Omeprazole do not demonstrate tachyphylaxis and can be used for longer term acid suppression. Despite this however, randomised placebo controlled studies have failed to demonstrate a benefit of (PPIs) over placebo when treating GERD in infants1.

 

Some studies have suggested that long term acid suppression with PPIs and H2RAs can lead to increased rates of pneumonia and gastroenteritis1.

 

6)      Prokinetics (unlicensed)

ESPGHAN and NASPGHAN advise against the use of all prokinetic agents including Erythromycin and Domperidone. There is no reliable evidence to support their effectiveness at treating GERD in infants and there have been concerns raised over the potentially cardiotoxic effects of Domperidone2.

 

Summary

Reflux is very common with half of infants having some symptoms. In the majority of cases reassurance is all that is required. If symptoms are severe and persistent and an alternate diagnosis is unlikely then consider thickened feeds and “tummy time” as a first line treatment. If this is unsuccessful then consider antacids but be aware that the evidence base for these treatments is limited and they are being used off license. Prokinetics play no part in managing GERD in infants and Domperidone use may be cardiotoxic2.

 

References

1)      Pediatric Gastroesophageal Reflux Clinical Practice Guidelines: Joint Recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition(NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN)Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. 49:498–547 # 2009

2)      Domperidone: limited benefits with significant risk for sudden cardiac death. Hondeghem LM.J CardiovascPharmacol. 2013 Mar;61(3):218-25.

 

July 2013 PDF

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Neglect and emotional abuse is the safeguarding topic this month.  ED advice on the management of minor head injuries, a report from BPSU in hypocalcaemic fits secondary to vitamin D deficiency, the new UK immunisation poster and a bit on crying babies.  Hope you find it all helpful.  Comments welcome below

Allergy update 2013

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Allergy – notes from a recent allergy update course with thanks to Dr Su Li, paediatric consultant @ Whipps Cross.

Useful websites:

www.allergyuk.org – good factsheets on rhinitis, oral allergy syndrome etc.

www.itchysneezywheezy.co.uk is a collaborative project for patients, their parents and health professionals on all aspects of atopic illness.

RCPCH allergy care pathways for health professionals (eczema, anaphylaxis, urticaria, mastocytosis, food, drug and venom allergies etc. etc.)

www.bsaci.org (stores patient management guidelines and has recently been accredited by NICE – milk, nut and penicillin allergy guidelines all currently in progress)

How to make a diagnosis:

1.  Allergy  focussed clinical history

2.  Allergy  tests – tests look at sensitisation not clinical allergy, defines probability of allergy

Skin prick tests

IgE tests

Provocation tests / food challenge

IgE ranges :

 

< 0.35 Grade 0
0.35 – 0.7 Grade 1
0.7 – 3.5 Grade 2
3.5 – 17.5 Grade 3
17.5 – 50 Grade 4
50 – 100 Grade 5
> 100 Grade 6

 

Test equivalence :

Skin prick < 3 mm 3-7 mm >7 mm
IgE < 0.35 0.35 – 50 > 50

 

Probability of allergy :

< 3 mm 3-7 mm > 7 mm
High clinical suspicion Possible allergy Probably allergy Allergic
50:50 Possible allergy Possible allergy Probably allergy
Low clinical suspicion Not allergic Possible allergy Possible allergy

 

If ‘possible allergy’ consider food challenge.

 

Peanut Allergy:

  • Your risk of anaphylaxis to peanut is 1% per year if you have a nut allergy.
  • If you have had anaphylactic reaction, your risk increases to 5% per year, therefore always prescribe Adrenaline Autoinjector (EpiPen).
  • The degree of positivity of a test does not change the risk of anaphylaxis.
  • Your risk of having a peanut allergy is 8 times more if you have a sibling with a nut allergy – consider screening siblings.

Eczema:

  • Common allergens associated with eczema are egg, peanut and cows milk.
  • If you are allergic to egg, consider testing for the peanut and milk as they often co-exist
  • Egg exclusion diets can improve eczema symptoms however there is an increased risk of anaphylaxis if you come into contact with egg whilst on an
    exclusion diet.
  • Consider a food challenge after 1 year as egg allergies often resolve.

Cows Milk Protein Intolerance:

  • This is a non IgE mediated disease, allergy testing will be negative.
  • Typical symptoms tend to be eczema or GI upset including reflux, vomiting, ‘colic’, constipation, loose stools, blood and mucous in stools.
  • Management includes a 2-4 week trial of extensively hydrolysed formula (Nutramigen / Peptijunior) or amino acid formula (Nutramigen AA / Neocate).
  • If breastfeeding, mothers need to go onto an exclusion diet (including soya).
  • Do not use over the counter partially hydrolysed formula milks, these still contain cows milk protein.
  • Refer to a dietician if on an exclusion diet.
  • Consider diagnosis of FPIES (food protein intolerance enteropathy syndrome).
  • Cows milk protein intolerance usually resolves around 14 months of age.
  • At this age, introduce soya milk first. If well tolerated, introduce cows milk.

 

 

Foreign body ingestion

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The information for this topic is taken from a recent comprehensive review (August 2012) that appeared in www.UpToDate.com.  Bartshealth employees can access the full text via a link from the intranet.

Ingested foreign bodies (UptoDate.com article, August 2012)

Coins — Coins are by far the most common foreign body ingested by children. Approximately two-thirds of ingested coins are in the stomach by the time of x-ray but those that lodge in the oesophagus for 24 hours after ingestion may need to be removed endoscopically as only 20-30% of these will pass into the stomach on their own.  Coins that reach the stomach can be managed expectantly, and most will be passed within one to two weeks. A child who develops any signs or symptoms of obstruction, abdominal pain, vomiting, or fever, needs to come back to the ED urgently.

Button batteries — ingestions of “button” batteries are increasing and are associated with significant morbidity. Animal studies have demonstrated mucosal necrosis within one hour of ingestion and ulceration within two hours, with perforation as early as eight hours after ingestion.  It may be difficult to differentiate between a disk battery and a coin on a radiograph. This distinction is most important when the foreign body is in the oesophagus, since batteries require immediate removal whereas coins may not.

Magnets — also increasing. Many of the children with complications from multiple magnet ingestion had underlying developmental delay or autism. In one case, an older child inadvertently swallowed these magnets while using them to imitate a pierced tongue.  Two or more strong magnets, especially if ingested at different times, may attract across layers of bowel leading to pressure necrosis, fistula, volvulus, perforation, infection, or obstruction. Radiographs of the neck and abdomen should be performed, including a lateral view. X-rays cannot usually determine whether bowel wall is compressed between the magnets, although the finding of magnets that appear to be stacked but are slightly separated is suggestive. Management depends on the number, location and type of magnets, and on the timing of the ingestion.  Ingestion of a single magnet can generally be managed conservatively with serial radiographs while multiple magnets need removing.  Laxatives may help with faster bowel emptying if they are not in a place easily accessible with the endoscope.

References at www.uptodate.com.